Tufting machines for manufacture of tufted fabrics, tufted carpets, rugs, drapes, heavy fabrics, and the like

ABSTRACT

Tufting machines for making U-tufts and/or loop-tufts on a backing. The tufts may be made of the same or different heights and from strands of tufting material having the same or different color or other characteristics. Some machines form U-tufts and/or loop-tufts from discrete bits of tufting material whereas others form loop-tufts and/or U-tufts from a continuous strand. For tufts of the same or different color and of the same or different length, the pile pattern may be changed by controlling the number of rows of tufts per unit length of the backing; the number of tufts per row (gage), and the relative positions of corresponding tufts of different rows. All of the machines utilize at least one, and usually more, of the following means in cooperative combinations; tufting needle means including split-eye needles of novel construction and mode of control for opening and/or closure of the needle eyes; forked-end tufting blades which slit the backing and force the strands through the backing to form looptufts; novel adjustable bit-stop means at the tufting stations; strand-clamping means of novel construction at the tufting stations and/or in advance of strand-severing means; strandsevering means of novel rotary cutter and anvil construction used in various combinations of single cutter/single anvil, multiplecutter/single anvil, and multiple-cutter/multiple anvil to supply a tufting station with tufting material of selected length and/or of selected color or other characteristics: novel cutter/anvil arrangements for making cut and/or uncut loop-tufts from continuous strands and in which blades of the cutter slit the backing, force the strands through the backing into the anvil recesses, and, for cut loop-tufts, cooperate with knife means in anvil recesses: for slitting the backing, the tufting blades may be fixed to a rotary member, or may be retractibly mounted on a rotary cutter member, fixedly attached to a reciprocating member, slidably mounted in a stationary member and operated by a cam or other means, or slidably mounted in a reciprocating member; the tufting anvil may be a rotary structure or a belt structure, segmented or continuous, having upstanding recess-forming elements attached to the belt or integral therewith: means including mechanism for effecting adjustable step-by-step lengthwise feed of the backing; means including novel mechanism for effecting relative motion between the backing and a row of tufting-needle means in direction laterally of the lengthwise feed of the backing.

United States Patent Spanel et al. A

1 51 June 20, 1972 [54] TUFTING MACHINES FOR MANUFACTURE OF TUFI'ED FABRICS, TUFTED CARPETS, RUGS, DRAPES, HEAVY FABRICS, AND THE LIKE [72] Inventors: Abram N. Spanel, 344 Stockton St., Princeton, NJ. 08540; John L. Schwartz, Hightstown, N ..l

[73] Assignee: said Spanel, by said Schwartz [22] Filed: June 25, 1969 [21] Appl. No.: 836,399

226/1 10 51 Int. Cl ..D05c 15/34 [58] Field of Search ..112/79 R, 79 A, 79.5, 80,266,

[56] References Cited UNITED STATES PATENTS $2,256 1] 1866 Amour ..66/ 120 2,679,218 5/1954 Jones ..112/79 2,707,446 5/1955 McCutchen ..1 12/79 2,845,885 8/1958 Scarrone 1 12/203 X 2,855,879 10/1958 Manning et al. ..112/79 2,887,966 5/1959 Felton ..l l2/79.5 3,258,938 7/1966 Hofmann. ..66/119 3,301,205 l/l967 Card ..1 12/79 3,387,577 6/1968 Spanel et al. ..112/79 3,393,653 7/1968 Ellison ..1 12/79 3,415,209 12/1968 Ellison et al. ..112/79 FOREIGN PATENTS 0R APPLICATIONS 1,817,381 12/1967 Germany ..112/79 919,904 2/1963 Great Britain ..1 12/79 Primary Examiner-James R. Boler Attorney-Woodcock, Washbum, Kurtz 8L Mackiewicz [57] ABSTRACT Tufting machines for making U-tufts and/or loop-tufts on a backing. The tufts may be made of the same or different heights and from strands of tufting material having the same or different color or other characteristics. Some machines form U-tufts and/or loop tufts from discrete bits of tufting material whereas others fonn loop-tufts and/or U-tufts from a continuous strand. For tufts of the same or different color and of the same or different length, the pile pattern may be changed by controlling the number of rows of tufts per unit length of the backing; the number of tufts per row (gage), and the relative positions of corresponding tufts of different rows. All of the machines utilize at least one, and usually more, of the following means in cooperative combinations; tufting needle means including split-eye needles of novel construction and mode of control for opening and/or closure of the needle eyes; forkedend tufting blades which slit the backing and force the strands through the backing to form loop-tufts; novel adjustable bitstop means at the tufting stations; strand-clamping means of novel construction at the tufting stations and/or in advance of strand-severing means; strand-severing means of novel rotary cutter and anvil construction used in various combinations of single cutter/single anvil, multiple-cutter/single anvil, and multiple-cutter/multiple anvil to supply a tufting station with tufting material of selected length and/or of selected color or other characteristics: novel cutter/anvil arrangements for making cut and/or uncut loop-tufts from continuous strands and in which blades of the cutter slit the backing, force the strands through the backing into the anvil recesses, and, for out loop-tufts, cooperate with knife means in anvil recesses: for slitting the backing, the tufting blades may be fixed to a romember, or may be retractibly mounted on a rotary cutter member, fixedly attached to a reciprocating member, slidably mounted in a stationary member and operated by a cam or other means, or slidably mounted in a reciprocating member; the tufting anvil may be a rotary structure or a belt structure, segmented or continuous, having upstanding recess-forming elements attached to the belt or integral therewith: means including mechanism for effecting adjustable step-by-step lengthwise feed of the backing; means including novel mechanism for effecting relative motion between the backing and a row of tufting-needle means in direction laterally of the lengthwise feed of the backing.

27 Claims, 106 Drawing Figures FA'TE'NTEDJum 1972 3,670,672

sum 02 or 23 Abram Mg gzgf g John L Schwartz PA'TENTfinJunzo 1972 3. 670.672

sum 03 or 23 A INVEIIVTMPS '7 Abram MSpane/ 8 John L. Schwart;

PATENTEDJUm 1272 P5060175 Abram IV. Spa 1e! 8 John L .Sc/rwa'rtz sum as or 23 PATENTEDmzo 1912 3. 670.672

sum as or 23 mvn'rons Abrqm N.Spane| 8 b r John L.Schw0rtz P'A'TENTEDJum I972 SHEET 09 0F 23 IN VENTORS Abram A. 5pa/2e/& Joh n L. 5: war 2*] PA'Ti'NTEflJunzo 1272 saw 11 or 23 v INVENTORS Abram N.-Sponel 8 John L.Schwurtz PATENTEDJUM 20 1972 saw 12 0F 23 INVENTORS Abram N.Sponel 8 John L. Schwartz PATENTED Jun 2 0- I972 SHEET l3 BF 23 INVENTORS Abram N. Spanel a John L. Schwartz.

PATENTinJuuzo m2 SHEET 18 [1F 23 INVENTORS Abram N. Sponel a John L. Schwartz.

PATENTEDmzo 1972 SHEET 17 [1F 23 INVEIITORS Abram N. Sponel a John L. Schwartz.

P'ATENTEnJunzo 1972 SHEET 18 0F 23 INVENTORS Abram N 5 one! & John L. S"

wortz.

PA'TENTEnJunzo 1922 saw 19 0F 23 INVENTORS Abram N. Spunel & John L. Schwartz. 

1. In a tufting machine for forming on a backing a pattern of Utufts and loop-tufts, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a plurality of tufting means respecTively for different stations of said machine, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, the tufting means for one or more of said stations consisting of a pair of closed-eye needles disposed side-by-side with their eyes aligned, each pair of said closed-eye needles being adapted to form a U-tuft when threaded with a discrete length of tufting material on one side of the backing, the tufting means for one or more other stations comprising at least one split-eye needle having relatively movable eyeforming members, and means controlling relative movement of said eye-forming members of each of the split-eye needles as said tufting means is reciprocated to open their empty eyes for threading by a discrete or continuous length of tufting material on one side of the path of travel of said backing, to close the threaded eyes on said one side of said path of travel of said backing for passage through the backing, to open the eyes on the other side of the path of travel of said backing to release looptufts formed thereby, and to reclose the empty eyes for passage through the backing for rethreading.
 2. In a tufting machine for forming on a backing a pattern of loop-tufts and U-tufts, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least one closed-eye needle and one split-eye needle disposed side-by-side with their eyes aligned for threading by a discrete length of tufting material when on one side of the backing to form said loop-tufts and U-tufts, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, said split-eye needle having relatively movable eye-forming members, and means controlling relative movement of said eye-forming members of the split-eye needle when on the other side of the backing to release a loop-tuft formed thereby.
 3. In a tufting machine for forming on a backing a pattern of loop-tufts and U-tufts, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means consisting of two spaced closed-eye needles and at least one intervening split-eye needle, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, all of said needles having their eyes in alignment for threading by a discrete length of tufting material when on one side of the backing to form said loop tufts and said U-tufts, each of said split-eye needles having relatively movable eye-forming members, and means controlling relative movement of said eye-forming members of each of the split-eye needles as said tufting means is reciprocated when on the other side of said path of travel of the backing to release the loop-tuft formed thereby.
 4. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a needle having spaced shank members normally forming an eye closed near the tip portion of the needle, the inner faces of said members having cam-engaging surfaces, means for supporting said needle for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, cam means extending between said spaced shank members and coacting with said surfaces to spread said shank members apart to open said eye for threading with tufting material when on one side of said path of travel of said backing, and gas-flow means producing a differential of pressure to propel said tufting material to threading relation with said needle eye while opened by said cam means.
 5. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for Feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a needle having spaced shank members normally forming an eye closed near the tip portion of the needle, means for supporting said needle for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, cam means extending between said spaced shank members and rotatable to spread said shank members apart to open said eye for threading when on one side of said path of travel of said backing with tufting material, and gas-flow means producing a differential of pressure to propel said tufting material to threading relation with said needle eye while opened by said cam means.
 6. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a needle comprising spaced shank members forming an elongated eye which is open for a first spaced relation of said shank members and is closed for a second spaced relation of said shank members, means for supporting said needle for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, driving means for reciprocating said supporting means, actuating means operating in timed relation with said driving means for effecting said first spaced relation of said shank members after the empty needle has passed to one side of said path of travel through the backing into a threading position for threading and again, after the threaded needle has returned through the backing to the other side of said path of travel, for release of tufting, and means for supplying tufting material through the open eye of the empty needle while in its said threading position to thread it for application to the backing as tufting.
 7. In a tufting machine for forming loop-tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a split-shank needle having shank members normally forming an eye closed near the tip portion of the needle, means for supporting said needle for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, means for controlling relative movement of said shank members toward one another to form an open hook-eye for threading when on one side of the backing and also relative movement of said shank members when on the opposite side of the backing to sweep a loop-tuft from said eye, and means for transporting a discrete bit-length of tufting material or a bit-length of a continuous strand of tufting material to said one side of the backing for threading of said open hook-eye.
 8. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a needle having spaced shank members with free ends normally forming an eye closed near the tip portion of the needle, the inner face of at least one of said members having a cam-engaging surface, means for supporting said needle for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, gas-flow means producing a differential of pressure to propel tufting material into threading relation with said needle while its eye is closed and is on one side of said path of travel, and cam means extending between said spaced shank members and coacting with said surface to open said eye for release of a loop-tuft after the threaded eye has passed to the other side of said path of travel.
 9. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a plurality of tufting means respectively for different tufting stations, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating Said supporting means, rotary cutter and anvil means to cut discrete bits of tufting material from strands thereof, said tufting means for at least some of said stations comprising a series of at least one split-eye needle and at least one closed-eye needle, all of which have their eyes in alignment, said split-eye needles having relatively movable eye-forming shank members, means controlling movement of eye-forming members of each of the split-eye needles as said tufting means is reciprocated to open their empty eyes for threading by said discrete bits of tufting material on one side of the path of travel of the backing, to close the threaded eyes for passage through the backing on said one side of said path of travel of the backing, to open the eyes on the other side of the path of travel of the backing to release loop-tufts formed thereby, and gas-flow means to propel bits from said rotary cutter and anvil means to each of said series of needles while their aligned eyes are on said first-named side of said path of travel of the backing.
 10. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, tufting needle means, a rotary cutter bar and anvil means for cutting bits from a strand of tufting material, said cutter bar having knives whose spacing predetermines the bit-length, gas-flow means for transporting the successive bits, each to a position for threading of said tufting needle means, and means for effecting passage of said tufting needle means through the backing in timed relation to rotation of said cutter bar and providing a dwell, which without change of the timing relation, is sufficient for aforesaid transport and threading of bits of different lengths.
 11. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, a row of threading stations crosswise of the backing on one side thereof, tufting needles which pass through the backing into and from said threading stations, a plurality of strand-severing means, each comprising a rotatable cutter bar operating in timed relation to said tufting needles and having peripherally spaced knives to cut bits from a strand of tufting material, gas-flow means for transporting the bits from the respective cutter bars to threading position in a corresponding threading station, and means for effecting passage of said needles through the backing and providing a dwell thereof in said threading stations sufficient for the aforesaid gas-flow transport of bits and threading of the needles.
 12. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least one needle adapted to be passed through the backing to and from a threading position, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, means for operating said rotary cutter, a multi-strand feed arrangement having gas-flow passages for respective strands of tufting materials, and a plurality of solenoids, each having a plunger movable to engage and release the strand in a corresponding one of said passages, and selectively operable to permit feed of a selected strand to the threading position of said tufting means via said rotary cutter.
 13. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least one needle passed through the backing to and from a threading position, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, rotary cutter/rotary anvil means comprising a single rotary cutter, means for operating said rotary cutter, a multi-strand feed arrangement having gas-flow passages for respective strands of tufting material, each of said passages at least in part formed by a deformable resilient tube, a plurality of strand-restraining means, each comprising a pair of members normally squeezing between them one of said tubes to preclude feed of the strand therein, and a plurality of means, each selectively operable to control a pair of said squeezing members to allow the corresponding one of the tubes to assume a shape that permits feeding of the strand therein to the threading position of said tufting means via said single rotary cutter.
 14. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least one needle passed through the backing to and from a threading position, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, means for operating said rotary cutter, and a strand-feed arrangement comprising a gas-flow passage directed toward said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, a rotatable spool having a passage for receiving a strand of tufting material from a strand-source, and programmed means for rotating said spool to a predetermined position for which the passage of the spool is in alignment with said gas-flow passage for gas-flow feed of the strand to said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means.
 15. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least one needle passed through the backing to and from a threading position, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, means for operating said rotary cutter, and a multi-strand feed arrangement comprising a plurality of gas-flow passages directed toward said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, a plurality of rotatable spools, each having a passage for receiving a strand of tufting material from a strand-source, and programmed means for rotating said spools to any selected one of predetermined positions for which the passage of a selected one of said spools is in alignment with a corresponding gas-flow passage for gas-flow feed of the selected strand to said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, the non-selected strands being restrained by having one or more turns on their respective spools.
 16. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least one needle passed through the backing to and from a threading position, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, rotary cutter/rotary anvil means for cutting bits from a strand of tufting material, means for operating said rotary cutter, gas-flow means for transporting the bits in turn to said tufting means when in threading position, and a multi-strand feed selector comprising a plurality of gas-flow passages directed toward said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, a plurality of rotatable spools, each having a passage for receiving a strand of tufting material from a strand-source, and programmed means for rotating said spools to any selected one of predetermined positions for which the passage of a selected one of the spools is in alignment with a corresponding gas-flow passage for gas-flow feed of the selected strand to said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, the non-selected strands being restrained by having one or more turns on their respective spools.
 17. In A tufting machine for forming loop-tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least one split-eye needle having a threading position on one side of the backing, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, means to open the needle eye when in said threading position and again when in a loop-release position on the opposite side of the backing, means for feeding a strand of tufting material to said threading position of said tufting means, rotary cutter/rotary anvil means programmed to cut said strand upon termination of a pattern-demand for a strand of that color or other characteristic, and a multi-strand selector comprising a plurality of gas-flow passages directed toward said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means, a plurality of rotatable spools respectively having passages for receiving strands of tufting material of different color or other characteristic, and programmed means for rotating said spools to any selected one of predetermined positions for which the passage of a selected one of the spools is in alignment with a corresponding gas-flow passage for gas-flow feed of the selected strand to said rotary cutter/rotary anvil means.
 18. In a tufting machine for applying tuft bits to a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, threading stations adjacent one side of the backing, tufting needles passed through the backing to and from the respective threading stations, means for supporting said needles for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, strand-severing means for severing bits from strands of tufting material, gas-flow means including flow passages extending to said threading stations respectively for propelling the severed bits from said strand-severing means to said needles with each bit in threaded relation with at least one of said needles for application of said bits to the backing, bit-stop means for each threading station comprising a deformable resilient tube serving as an extension of the corresponding flow passage, and means for squeezing each tube to form a constriction arresting a bit in position for its application to the backing.
 19. In a tufting machine for applying tuft bits to a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, threading stations adjacent one side of the backing, tufting needles passed through the backing to and from the respective threading stations, means for supporting said needles for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, strand-severing means for severing bits from strands of tufting material, gas-flow means including flow passages extending to said threading stations respectively for propelling the severed bits from said strand-severing means to said needles with each bit in threaded relation with at least one of said needles for application of said bits to the backing, bit-stop means for each threading station comprising a deformable resilient tube serving as an extension of the corresponding flow passage, and adjustable means for squeezing each tube at a variable distance to form a constriction arresting a bit in desired position for its application to the backing.
 20. An assembly of tufting needles comprising a pair of mounting members, at least one of which is relatively movable with respect to the other, each of said tufting needles having shanks respectively anchored into said mounting members and projecting therefrom in side-by-side spaced relation, one shank of each needle having a relatively sharp tip portion anD a shoulder portion forming part of the eye of the needle and the other of said shank members having a shape complementary to said shoulder portion so that when said shank members are in juxtaposition there is formed the eye of the needle for carrying tufting yarn, means for feeding backing along a path of travel adjacent said assembly of tufting needles, means supporting said mounting members for reciprocation of said tufting needles from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, and means for operating said mounting members simultaneously to open and close the eyes of said needles.
 21. The assembly of claim 20 in which means are provided for concurrently opening the eyes of all needles when on one side of said path of travel of the backing to receive tufting yarn and for concurrently closing said eyes while on said same side of said path of travel of said backing for movement of the tufting yarn through the backing to form a plurality of tufts.
 22. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, tufting means comprising at least two split-shank needles disposed side-by-side with aligned eyes, each of said split-shank needles having two spaced shank members forming an elongated eye which near the tip portion of the needle may be opened or closed by relative movement of said shank members, means supporting said tufting means for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, and cam means disposed between said shanks for effecting relative movement of them to open said eyes when on one side of said path of travel of the backing for threading of them by lengths of tufting material and to close said eyes when on the opposite side of the path of travel of the backing for release of loop-tufts formed from said lengths of tufting material.
 23. The tufting machine of claim 22 in which said shanks in the position for closing said eyes present substantially parallel opposing surfaces, rotatable cam means for opening said eyes, and means for operating said cam means to open said eyes at any selected longitudinal position of the shanks relative to said cam means.
 24. The tufting machine of claim 22 in which the opposing surfaces of said shank portion are movable relative to said cam means without opening said eyes, the opening of said eyes being due solely to rotation of said cam means.
 25. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a pair of mounting members, tufting means comprising at least two split-eye needles disposed side-by-side with aligned eyes, each of said split-eye needles having two spaced shank members which are respectively attached to said mounting members and which form an elongated eye extending toward the tip portion of the needle, means for supporting said mounting members for reciprocation from one side of the path of travel of a backing to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, and means for moving one or the other or both of said mounting members to open the eyes of said split-eye needles when on one side of said path of travel of the backing for threading thereof with a length of tufting material and to close said eyes when on the opposite side of said path of travel of the backing for release of loop-tufts formed from said length of tufting material.
 26. In a tufting machine for forming tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a pair of mounting members, tufting means comprising at least two split-eye needles disposed side-by-side with aligned eyes, each of said split-eye needles having two spaced shank members which are respectively attached to said mOunting members and which form an elongated eye extending toward the tip portion of the needle, means for supporting said mounting members for reciprocation from one side of the path of travel of a backing to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, and means for moving one or the other or both of said mounting members to open the eyes of said split-eye needles when on one side of said path of travel of the backing for threading with a length of tufting material, to close the threaded eyes on said one side of said path of travel of said backing for passage through the backing, to reopen the eyes when on the other side of said path of travel of the backing for release of loop-tufts formed from said length of tufting material, and to reclose the empty eyes for passage through the backing for rethreading.
 27. In a tufting machine for forming loop-tufts on a backing, means for feeding said backing along a path of travel through said machine, a split-shank needle having shank members with free ends normally forming an eye closed near the tip portion of the needle, means supporting said needle for reciprocation from one side of said path of travel to the other side thereof, means for reciprocating said supporting means, cam means intermediate of and engaging at least one of said shank members to open said eye when on one side of said path of travel of the backing for threading and for again opening said eye when on the other side of said path of travel of the backing for release of a loop-tuft, and means for threading the needle eye when open on said first-named side of said path of travel of the backing. 